Reliability and Validity Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Reliability and Validity Paper - Essay Example † and then proceeds with â€Å"How it will be measured?† (Desarbo, William, & Babin, 2009) A measurement is defined as ‘good’ if it fulfills the criteria of validity and reliability. Reliability: Reliability measures the extent to which the test yields consistent results each time it is conducted and across various situations and includes the following (Neukrug, 2008). Test-retest: This involves conducting the same scale or test to similar respondents at two different points in time (Neukrug, 2008). For example, a researcher interested in measuring the number of times an average adult worker falls sick within a year discovers that 68% of the population falls sick at least thrice. If this test is conducted again, under similar conditions, and it is discovered again that 68% of the population falls sick at least thrice a year, it indicates that the test is reliable. Split-half: Under this the researcher checks one half of the results of a test against the othe r half to check for internal consistency (Neukrug, 2008). For example, a researcher who has measured good quality of human services at a hospital in terms of four items ambience, proper equipment, quick procedure and trained staff can split the results by grouping the results of ambience and proper equipment together and quick procedure and trained staff together respectively and then check the Chronbach’s alpha for these two groups. ... If the results obtained through the two tests show high correlation, then the tests are considered to be reliable. Validity: Validity refers to the extent to which the test measures what it is supposed to measure; that is, the extent to which the test meets its objectives (Neukrug, 2008). The following are the types of validity: Face or content validity: This results from the consensus amongst experts that a scale logically appears to be reliable (Neukrug, 2008). For instance, questions such as â€Å"how many children do you have?† asked by a researcher regarding the effectiveness of family planning programs are generally assumed to stand up to face validity. Criterion Validity: If the measure correlates with another measure of the same construct then it is assumed to have criterion validity (Desarbo, William, & Babin, 2009). If the new measure is tested at the same time as the old measure and is shown to be valid it is known as concurrent validity and if the new measure is te sted at a later time and is shown to be valid then it is predictive validity (Desarbo, William, & Babin, 2009). For example, in tests reveal that the effectiveness of the prototype provide correct estimate of the effectiveness of the final medicine 80% of the time, then the test has predictive validity. If, however, the same correlation is established between the final medicine (after it’s manufactured) and its prototype at the same time, then it will have concurrent validity. Construct Validity: This refers to the extent to which the measure confirms a network of hypothesis based on a theory to which the concepts are related (Monette, Sullivan, & DeJong, 2010). Convergent

Literacy Narrative Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Literacy Narrative - Essay Example When I reached the school-going age, I enrolled into the elementary school, where my teachers taught some of the simple aspects of language and pronunciations. I developed a keen interest in reading picture stories; I could easily connect the pictures to form coherent stories. My elder brother was very supportive and could often help me collect several picture books, which I could read and narrate the stories to him and my parents. Sometimes, they were very excited not because I could tell the stories well, but because I could spell and pronounced some words in a comical way just because I had developed proper literacy skills. I remember a day when my brother took me for a walk in the nearest town, I forced him to take me to the bookshop and see if I could find some nice story books. Though he was reluctant, he agreed to take me on condition that I would not cry for a book because he did not have enough money. However, the carving for a certain interesting book at the bookshop made me to hide it in my shirt, thinking that no one would know about it. When we reached at the door, I was surprised when the door scanner sounded an alarm; the attendant smiled at me and asked my brother to pay and never to scold at me since I was just a small boy. I was very embarrassed and vowed never to do it again. I went home and was happy to have the book inasmuch as it had disappointed my elder brother. During a function at school, I was chosen to make a presentation to the visitors who were gracing the occasion. I received a great applause from the audience and encouragement from my teachers, who noted that my literacy skills had really improved. The love for reading has propelled me to excel I my passion for research. So far, I have written various novels that explain about my life into written literature and research and others that are mere fictions. I

Newly Established Nations in World Wars Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Newly Established Nations in World Wars - Essay Example At the beginning of the XX century, Asian and African countries were occupied and controlled by European states and the USA. For instance, British Empire controlled population of 458 million people. Belgium had only one colony, the Belgian Congo, but its territory was 76 times larger than Belgium. Germany, France, the USA and Russia controlled countries Asian and African continent. For these colonies World War I opened the door to a revolution in world politics in which several perspectives on international relations competed for attention in the period of intellectual ferment (King 23). Speaking about the establishment of the new states, historians speak about policy of countries involved in a conflict. For instance, German aggression was fueled by Pan-Slavic policy provided in Sarajevo. Usually, the common sense of war concerns the questions of national safety, and usually accepted and accomplished not on the basis of choice, but on the bases of force connected with the bureaucrati c system. The main consequence of the WWI was new division of power and new world order. New states emerged in Eastern Europe and after the collapse of the Habsburg Empire and Turkish Revolution. The large-scale death and destruction exacted by World War 1 destroyed the security that had made current history a comfortable approach to international politics. That catastrophic global war, begun in 1914, was a painful learning experience that stimulated the search for knowledge that could address contemporary policy problems-notably war-in a theoretical context (King 45). After the war, Great Britain became one of the biggest debtors; the USA, and Woodrow Wilson, followed policy of isolationism; France occupied the Republic of Alsace-Lorraine but suffered from destructions caused by the war. Many of its colonial solders returned to native lands and began anti-imperial movements; Russia suffered from the civil war and the revolution (1917); Germany was subjected with obligations and rep arations under the Treaty of Versailles. Bending to French pressure, the Peace of Paris (the Versailles treaty) insisted on the destruction of Germany's armed forces, the loss of territory, and the imposition of heavy reparations to compensate the Allies for the damage that German militarism had exacted (King 76-77). The World War II created new opportunities for colonies to preserve their self-identity and national spirit. Domestically, nationalism inflamed forceful recovery of lost territory and rationalized the expansion of German borders to regain provinces ceded to others and to absorb Germans living in Austria, Czechoslovakia, and Poland (LaFeber 22). The rise of fascism animated this renewed imperialistic push. German aggression was fueled further by resentment of the punitive terms imposed at the 1919 Paris peace conference by the victorious World War I powers (France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, and the United States). A key cause the WWII was the failure of the British hope for Anglo-American collaboration to maintain world order. That hope vanished when the United States, in a fit of anger, repudiated the Versailles peace treaty and retreated

Professional Accountability Discussion Paper (nursing) Essay

Professional Accountability Discussion Paper (nursing) - Essay Example This discussion is about the professional accountability of persons engaged in the medical profession. Due to the advancements in the medical technology, today doctors are able to offer treatments that cure even the very complicated conditions. People with potentially life threatening conditions are able to prolong their lives due to the remarkable improvements in the treatments. But here doctors are faced with an important issue of explaining to the patient the kind of treatment to be administered, the possible results, side effects that may occur and get the consent of the patient. Obtaining the consent of the patient is very essential to commence any kind of treatment. Patient autonomy which means the right of the patient who is in a sound mental capacity to take the decision whether to acceptor refuse the treatment is given utmost importance. If the patient is not in a state of mind to give his consent, efforts should be made to find out the views expressed by him earlier in this regard or the consent of the closest family member should be obtained. When neither could be done, that situation put doctors in a fix. They land in an ethical dilemma as to whether to save the life of the patient or to respect his own decision even if it would lead him to his end of life. The following problem deals with such a kind. You are working in a casualty department of a large hospital. An accident victim is rushed in one evening. He is conscious, but badly injured and desperately in need a blood transfusion. However, he turns out to have religious principles that forbid the exchange of blood. You explain the situation to him, including the very really threat to his survival if he does not have a transfusion. He clearly understands exactly what you are telling him, but still refuses to accept a transfusion, and asks you to do what you can by other means. He

Literature Cape Essay Example for Free

Literature Cape Essay Many critics attempt to show how the disguise relate to the different parts, and/or different characters of the play. This story explores a cariety of themes and issues, however disguise, deceit, celebration and festivity are the major, more prominent ones. Although the play is a â€Å"silly play† said by Samuel Pepys, who saw the play on three occasions, many critics feel the play’s use of language used to deceive and the failure of characters to communicate properly and effectively and truthfully, made it confusing. The Twelfth Night (January 6th) is actually the Epiphany. During the Epiphany noble households sponsored numerous performances of plays, masques, banquets and kinds of activities. This story opens up to a man, Curio dressing for the plans of that night. While dressing, he confesses how he feels towards a woman named Olivia. Olivia, a well-to-do woman, wants little Analysis of Major Characters Viola Like most of Shakespeare’s heroines, Viola is a tremendously likable figure. She has no serious faults, and we can easily discount the peculiarity of her decision to dress as a man, since it sets the entire plot in motion. She is the character whose love seems the purest. The other characters’ passions are fickle: Orsino jumps from Olivia to Viola, Olivia jumps from Viola to Sebastian, and Sir Toby and Maria’s marriage seems more a matter of whim than an expression of deep and abiding passion. Only Viola seems to be truly, passionately in love as opposed to being self-indulgently lovesick. As she says to Orsino, describing herself and her love for him: She pined in thought, And with a green and yellow melancholy She sat like patience on a monument, Smiling at grief. Was not this love indeed? (II. iv. 111–114) The audience, like Orsino, can only answer with an emphatic yes. Viola’s chief problem throughout the play is one of identity. Because of her disguise, she must be both herself and Cesario. This mounting identity crisis culminates in the final scene, when Viola finds herself surrounded by people who each have a different idea of who she is and are unaware of who she actually is. Were Twelfth Night not a comedy, this pressure might cause Viola to break down. Sebastian’s appearance at this point, however, effectively saves Viola by allowing her to be herself again. Sebastian, who independent of his sister is not much of a character, takes over the aspects f Viola’s disguise that she no longer wishes to maintain. Thus liberated by her brother, Viola is free to shed the roles that she has accumulated throughout the play, and she can return to being Viola, the woman who has loved and won Orsino. Orsino and Olivia Orsino and Olivia are worth discussing together, because they have similar personalities. Both claim to be buffeted by s trong emotions, but both ultimately seem to be self-indulgent individuals who enjoy melodrama and self-involvement more than anything. When we first meet them, Orsino is pining away for love of Olivia, while Olivia pines away for her dead brother. They show no interest in relating to the outside world, preferring to lock themselves up with their sorrows and mope around their homes. Viola’s arrival begins to break both characters out of their self-involved shells, but neither undergoes a clear-cut change. Orsino relates to Viola in a way that he never has to Olivia, diminishing his self-involvement and making him more likable. Yet he persists in his belief that he is in love with Olivia until the final scene, in spite of the fact that he never once speaks to her during the course of the play. Olivia, meanwhile, sets aside her grief when Viola (disguised as Cesario) comes to see her. But Olivia takes up her own fantasy of lovesickness, in which she pines away—with a self-indulgence that mirrors Orsino’s—for a man who is really a woman. Ultimately, Orsino and Olivia seem to be out of touch with real emotion, as demonstrated by the ease with which they shift their affections in the final scene—Orsino from Olivia to Viola, and Olivia from Cesario to Sebastian. The similarity between Orsino and Olivia does not diminish with the end of the play, since the audience realizes that by marrying Viola and Sebastian, respectively, Orsino and Olivia are essentially marrying female and male versions of the same person. Malvolio Malvolio initially seems to be a minor character, and his humiliation seems little more than an amusing subplot to the Viola-Olivia-Orsino- love triangle. But he becomes more interesting as the play progresses, and most critics have judged him one of the most complex and fascinating characters in Twelfth Night. When we first meet Malvolio, he seems to be a simple type—a puritan, a stiff and proper servant who likes nothing better than to spoil other people’s fun. It is this dour, fun-despising side that earns him the enmity of the zany, drunken Sir Toby and the clever Maria, who together engineer his downfall. But they do so by playing on a side of Malvolio that might have otherwise remained hidden—his self-regard and his remarkable ambitions, which extend to marrying Olivia and becoming, as he puts it, â€Å"Count Malvolio† (II. v. 30). When he finds the forged letter from Olivia (actually penned by Maria) that seems to offer hope to his ambitions, Malvolio undergoes his first transformation—from a stiff and wooden embodiment of priggish propriety into an personification of the power of selfdelusion. He is ridiculous in these scenes, as he capers around in the yellow stockings and crossed garters that he thinks will please Olivia, but he also becomes pitiable. He may deserve his come-uppance, but there is an uncomfortable universality to his experience. Malvolio’s misfortune is a cautionary tale of ambition overcoming good sense, and the audience winces at the way he adapts every event—including Olivia’s confused assumption that he must be mad—to fit his rosy picture of his glorious future as a nobleman. Earlier, he embodies stiff joylessness; now he is joyful, but in pursuit of a dream that everyone, except him, knows is false. Our pity for Malvolio only increases when the vindictive Maria and Toby confine him to a dark room in Act IV. As he desperately protests that he is not mad, Malvolio begins to seem more of a victim than a victimizer. It is as if the unfortunate steward, as the embodiment of order and sobriety, must be sacrificed so that the rest of the characters can indulge in the hearty spirit that suffuses Twelfth Night. As he is sacrificed, Malvolio begins to earn our respect. It is too much to call him a tragic figure, however—after all, he is only being asked to endure a single night in darkness, hardly a fate comparable to the sufferings of King Lear or Hamlet. But there is a kind of nobility, however limited, in the way that the deluded steward stubbornly clings to his sanity, even in the face of Feste’s insistence that he is mad. Malvolio remains true to himself, despite everything: he knows that he is sane, and he will not allow anything to destroy this knowledge. Malvolio (and the audience) must be content with this self-knowledge, because the play allows Malvolio no real recompense for his sufferings. At the close of the play, he is brought out of the darkness into a celebration in which he has no part, and where no one seems willing to offer him a real apology. â€Å"I’ll be revenged on the whole pack of you,† he snarls, stalking out of the festivities (V. i. 365). His exit strikes a jarring note in an otherwise joyful comedy. Malvolio has no real place in the anarchic world of Twelfth Night, except to suggest that, even in the best of worlds, someone must suffer while everyone else is happy. I n the kingdom of Illyria, a nobleman named Orsino lies around listening to music, pining away for the love of Lady Olivia. He cannot have her because she is in mourning for her dead brother and refuses to entertain any proposals of marriage. Meanwhile, off the coast, a storm has caused a terrible shipwreck. A young, aristocratic-born woman named Viola is swept onto the Illyrian shore. Finding herself alone in a strange land, she assumes that her twin brother, Sebastian, has been drowned in the wreck, and tries to figure out what sort of work she can do. A friendly sea captain tells her about Orsino’s courtship of Olivia, and Viola says that she wishes she could go to work in Olivia’s home. But since Lady Olivia refuses to talk with any strangers, Viola decides that she cannot look for work with her. Instead, she decides to disguise herself as a man, taking on the name of Cesario, and goes to work in the household of Duke Orsino. Viola (disguised as Cesario) quickly becomes a favorite of Orsino, who makes Cesario his page. Viola finds herself falling in love with Orsino—a difficult love to pursue, as Orsino believes her to be a man. But when Orsino sends Cesario to deliver Orsino’s love messages to the disdainful Olivia, Olivia herself falls for the beautiful young Cesario, believing her to be a man. The love triangle is complete: Viola loves Orsino, Orsino loves Olivia, and Olivia loves Cesario—and everyone is miserable. Meanwhile, we meet the other members of Olivia’s household: her rowdy drunkard of an uncle, Sir Toby; his foolish friend, Sir Andrew Aguecheek, who is trying in his hopeless way to court Olivia; Olivia’s witty and pretty waiting-gentlewoman, Maria; Feste, the clever clown of the house; and Malvolio, the dour, prudish steward of Olivia’s household. When Sir Toby and the others take offense at Malvolio’s constant efforts to spoil their fun, Maria engineers a practical joke to make Malvolio think that Olivia is in love with him. She forges a letter, supposedly from Olivia, addressed to her beloved (whose name is signified by the letters M. O. A. I. ), telling him that if he wants to earn her favor, he should dress in yellow stockings and crossed garters, act haughtily, smile constantly, and refuse to explain himself to anyone. Malvolio finds the letter, assumes that it is addressed to him, and, filled with dreams of marrying Olivia and becoming noble himself, happily follows its commands. He behaves so strangely that Olivia comes to think that he is mad. Meanwhile, Sebastian, who is still alive after all but believes his sister Viola to be dead, arrives in Illyria along with his friend and protector, Antonio. Antonio has cared for Sebastian since the shipwreck and is passionately (and perhaps sexually) attached to the young man—so much so that he follows him to Orsino’s domain, in spite of the fact that he and Orsino are old enemies. Sir Andrew, observing Olivia’s attraction to Cesario (still Viola in disguise), challenges Cesario to a duel. Sir Toby, who sees the prospective duel as entertaining fun, eggs Sir Andrew on. However, when Sebastian—who looks just like the disguised Viola—appears on the scene, Sir Andrew and Sir Toby end up coming to blows with Sebastian, thinking that he is Cesario. Olivia enters amid the confusion. Encountering Sebastian and thinking that he is Cesario, she asks him to marry her. He is baffled, since he has never seen her before. He sees, however, that she is wealthy and beautiful, and he is therefore more than willing to go along with her. Meanwhile, Antonio has been arrested by Orsino’s officers and now begs Cesario for help, mistaking him for Sebastian. Viola denies knowing Antonio, and Antonio is dragged off, crying out that Sebastian has betrayed him. Suddenly, Viola has newfound hope that her brother may be alive. Malvolio’s supposed madness has allowed the gleeful Maria, Toby, and the rest to lock Malvolio into a small, dark room for his treatment, and they torment him at will. Feste dresses up as Sir Topas, a priest, and pretends to examine Malvolio, declaring him definitely insane in spite of his protests. However, Sir Toby begins to think better of the joke, and they allow Malvolio to send a letter to Olivia, in which he asks to be released. Eventually, Viola (still disguised as Cesario) and Orsino make their way to Olivia’s house, where Olivia welcomes Cesario as her new husband, thinking him to be Sebastian, whom she has just married. Orsino is furious, but then Sebastian himself appears on the scene, and all is revealed. The siblings are joyfully reunited, and Orsino realizes that he loves Viola, now that he knows she is a woman, and asks her to marry him. We discover that Sir Toby and Maria have also been married privately. Finally, someone remembers Malvolio and lets him out of the dark room. The trick is revealed in full, and the embittered Malvolio storms off, leaving the happy couples to their celebration. Themes, Motifs amp; Symbols Themes Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary  work. Love as a Cause of Suffering Twelfth Night is a romantic comedy, and romantic love is the play’s main focus. Despite the fact that the play offers a happy ending, in which the various lovers find one another and achieve wedded bliss, Shakespeare shows that love can cause pain. Many of the characters seem to view love as a kind of curse, a feeling that attacks its victims suddenly and disruptively. Various characters claim to suffer painfully from being in love, or, rather, from the pangs of unrequited love. At one point, Orsino depicts love dolefully as an â€Å"appetite† that he wants to satisfy and cannot (I. i. 1–3); at another point, he calls his desires â€Å"fell and cruel hounds† (I. i. 21). Olivia more bluntly  describes love as a â€Å"plague† from which she suffers terribly  (I. v. 265). These metaphors contain an element of violence, further painting the love-struck as victims of some random force in the universe. Even the less melodramatic Viola sighs unhappily that â€Å"My state is desperate for my master’s love† (II. ii. 35). This desperation has the potential to result in violence—as in Act V, scene i, when Orsino threatens to kill Cesario because he thinks that -Cesario has forsaken him to become Olivia’s lover. Love is also exclusionary: some people achieve romantic happiness, while others do not. At the end of the play, as the happy lovers rejoice, both Malvolio and Antonio are prevented from having the objects of their desire. Malvolio, who has pursued Olivia, must ultimately face the realization that he is a fool, socially unworthy of his noble mistress. Antonio is in a more difficult situation, as social norms do not allow for the gratification of his apparently sexual attraction to Sebastian. Love, thus, cannot conquer all obstacles, and those whose desires go unfulfilled remain no less in love but feel the sting of its absence all the more severely. The Uncertainty of Gender Gender is one of the most obvious and much-discussed topics in the play. Twelfth Night is one of Shakespeare’s so-called transvestite comedies, in which a female character—in this case, Viola—disguises herself as a man. This situation creates a sexual mess: Viola falls in love with Orsino but cannot tell him, because he thinks she is a man, while Olivia, the object of Orsino’s affection, falls for Viola in her guise as Cesario. There is a clear homoerotic subtext here: Olivia is in love with a woman, even if she thinks he is a man, and Orsino often remarks on Cesario’s beauty, suggesting that he is attracted to Viola even before her male disguise is removed. This latent homoeroticism finds an explicit echo in the minor character of Antonio, who is clearly in love with his male friend, Sebastian. But Antonio’s desires cannot be satisfied, while Orsino and Olivia both find tidy heterosexual gratification once the sexual ambiguities and deceptions are straightened out. Yet, even at the play’s close, Shakespeare leaves things somewhat murky, especially in the Orsino-Viola relationship. Orsino’s declaration of love to Viola suggests that he enjoys prolonging the pretense of Viola’s masculinity. Even after he knows that Viola is a woman, Orsino says to her, â€Å"Boy, thou hast said to me a thousand times / Thou never should’st love woman like to me† (V. i. 260–261). Similarly, in his last lines, Orsino declares, â€Å"Cesario, come— / For so you shall be while you are a man; / But when in other habits you are seen, / Orsino’s mistress, and his fancy’s queen† (V. i. 372–375). Even once everything is revealed, Orsino continues to address Viola by her male name. We can thus only wonder whether Orsino is truly in love with Viola, or if he is more enamoured of her male persona. The Folly of Ambition The problem of social ambition works itself out largely through the character of Malvolio, the steward, who seems to be a competent servant, if prudish and dour, but proves to be, in fact, a supreme egotist, with tremendous ambitions to rise out of his social class. Maria plays on these ambitions when she forges a letter from Olivia that makes Malvolio believe that Olivia is in love with him and wishes to marry him. Sir Toby and the others find this fantasy hysterically funny, of course—not only because of Malvolio’s unattractive personality but also because Malvolio is not of noble blood. In the class system of Shakespeare’s time, a noblewoman would generally not sully her reputation by marrying a man of lower social status. Yet the atmosphere of the play may render Malvolio’s aspirations less unreasonable than they initially seem. The feast of Twelfth Night, from which the play takes its name, was a time when social hierarchies were turned upside down. That same spirit is alive in Illyria: indeed, Malvolio’s antagonist, Maria, is able to increase her social standing by marrying Sir Toby. But it seems that Maria’s success may be due to her willingness to accept and promote the anarchy that Sir Toby and the others embrace. This Twelfth Night spirit, then, seems to pass by Malvolio, who doesn’t wholeheartedly embrace the upending of order and decorum but rather wants to blur class lines for himself alone. Motifs Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, or literary devices that can help to develop and inform the text’s major themes. Letters, Messages, and Tokens Twelfth Night features a great variety of messages sent from one character to another—sometimes as letters and other times in the form of tokens. Such messages are used both for purposes of communication and miscommunication—sometimes deliberate and sometimes accidental. Maria’s letter to Malvolio, which purports to be from Olivia, is a deliberate (and successful) attempt to trick the steward. Sir Andrew’s letter demanding a duel with Cesario, meanwhile, is meant seriously, but because it is so appallingly stupid, Sir Toby does not deliver it, rendering it extraneous. Malvolio’s missive, sent by way of Feste from the dark room in which he is imprisoned, ultimately works to undo the confusion caused by Maria’s forged letter and to free Malvolio from his imprisonment. But letters are not the only kind of messages that characters employ to communicate with one another. Individuals can be employed in the place of written communication—Orsino repeatedly sends Cesario, for instance, to deliver messages to Olivia. Objects can function as messages between people as well: Olivia sends Malvolio after Cesario with a ring, to tell the page that she loves him, and follows the ring up with further gifts, which symbolize her romantic attachment. Messages can convey important information, but they also create the potential for miscommunication and confusion—especially with characters like Maria and Sir Toby manipulating the information. Madness No one is truly insane in Twelfth Night, yet a number of characters are accused of being mad, and a current of insanity or zaniness runs through the action of the play. After Sir Toby and Maria dupe Malvolio into believing that Olivia loves him, Malvolio behaves so bizarrely that he is assumed to be mad and is locked away in a dark room. Malvolio himself knows that he is sane, and he accuses everyone around him of being mad. Meanwhile, when Antonio encounters Viola (disguised as Cesario), he mistakes her for Sebastian, and his angry insistence that she recognize him leads people to assume that he is mad. All of these incidents feed into the general atmosphere of the play, in which normal life is thrown topsy-turvy, and everyone must confront a reality that is somehow fractured. Disguises Many characters in Twelfth Night assume disguises, beginning with Viola, who puts on male attire and makes everyone else believe that she is a man. By dressing his protagonist in male garments, Shakespeare creates endless sexual confusion with the Olivia-ViolaOrsino love triangle. Other characters in disguise include Malvolio, who puts on crossed garters and yellow stockings in the hope of winning Olivia, and Feste, who dresses up as a priest—Sir Topas—when he speaks to Malvolio after the steward has been locked in a dark room. Feste puts on the disguise even though Malvolio will not be able to see him, since the room is so dark, suggesting that the importance of clothing is not just in the eye of the beholder. For Feste, the disguise completes his assumption of a new identity—in order to be Sir Topas, he must look like Sir Topas. Viola puts on new clothes and changes her gender, while Feste and Malvolio put on new garments either to impersonate a nobleman (Feste) or in the hopes of becoming a nobleman (Malvolio). Through these disguises, the play raises questions about what makes us who we are, compelling the audience to wonder if things like gender and class are set in stone, or if they can be altered with a change of clothing. Mistaken Identity The instances of mistaken identity are related to the prevalence of disguises in the play, as Viola’s male clothing leads to her being mistaken for her brother, Sebastian, and vice versa. Sebastian is mistaken for Viola (or rather, Cesario) by Sir Toby and Sir Andrew, and then by Olivia, who promptly marries him. Meanwhile, Antonio mistakes Viola for Sebastian, and thinks that his friend has betrayed him when Viola claims to not know him. These cases of mistaken identity, common in Shakespeare’s comedies, create the tangled situation that can be resolved only when Viola and Sebastian appear together, helping everyone to understand what has happened. Symbols Symbols are objects, characters, figures, or colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts. Olivia’s Gifts When Olivia wants to let Cesario know that she loves him, she sends him a ring by way of Malvolio. Later, when she mistakes Sebastian for Cesario, she gives him a precious pearl. In each case, the jewel serves as a token of her love—a physical symbol of her romantic attachment to a man who is really a woman. The gifts are more than symbols, though. â€Å"Youth is bought more oft than begged or borrowed,† Olivia says at one point, suggesting that the jewels are intended almost as bribes—that she means to buy Cesario’s love if she cannot win it (III. iv. 3). The Darkness of Malvolio’s Prison When Sir Toby and Maria pretend that Malvolio is mad, they confine him in a pitch-black chamber. Darkness becomes a symbol of his supposed insanity, as they tell him that the room is filled with light and his inability to see is a sign of his madness. Malvolio reverses the symbolism. â€Å"I say this house is as dark as ignorance, though ignorance were as dark as hell; and I say there was never man thus abused† (IV. ii. 40–42). In other words, the darkness—meaning madness—is not in the room with him, but outside, with Sir Toby and Feste and Maria, who have unjustly imprisoned him. Changes of Clothing Clothes are powerful in Twelfth Night. They can symbolize changes in gender—Viola puts on male clothes to be taken for a male— as well as class distinctions. When Malvolio fantasizes about becoming a nobleman, he imagines the new clothes that he will have. When Feste impersonates Sir Topas, he puts on a nobleman’s garb, even though Malvolio, whom he is fooling, cannot see him, suggesting that clothes have a power that transcends their physical function. Twelfth Night Analysis of Fools A fool can be defined in many meanings according to the Oxford English Dictionary On Historical Principles. The word could mean a silly person, or one who professionally counterfeits folly for the entertainment of others, a jester, clown or one who has little or no reason or intellect or one who is made to appear to be a fool (word originated from North Frisian). In english literature, the two main ways which the fool could enter imaginative literature is that He could provide a topic, a theme for mediation, or he could turn into a stock character on the stage, a stylized comic figure. In William Shakespeares comedy, Twelfth Night, Feste the clown is not the only fool who is subject to foolery. He and many other characters combine their silly acts and wits to invade other characters that evade reality or rather realize a dream, while our sympathies go out to those. It is natural that the fool should be a prominent amp; attractive figure and make an important contribution to the action in forming the confusion and the humor in an Elizabethan drama. In Twelfth Night, the clown and the fools are the ones who combine humor ;amp; wit to make the comedy work. Clowns, jesters, and Buffoons are usually regarded as fools. Their differences could be of how they dress, act or portrayed in society. A clown for example, was understood to be a country bumpkin or cloun'. In Elizabethan usage, the word clown is ambiguous meaning both countryman and principal comedian. Another meaning given to it in the 1600 is a fool or jester. As for a buffoon, it is defined as a man whose profession is to make low jests and antics postures; a clown, jester, fool. The buffoon is a fool because although he exploits his own weaknesses instead of being exploited by others. he resembles other comic fools. This is similar to the definition of a Jester who is also known as a buffoon, or a merry andrew. One maintained in a princes court or noblemans household. As you can see, the buffoon, jester and the clown are all depicted as fools and are related ;amp; tied to each other in some sort of way. They relatively have the same objectives in their roles but in appearance wise (clothes, physical features) they may be different. In Shakespeares Twelfth Night, Festes role in this Illyrian comedy is significant because Illyria is a country permeated with the spirit of the Feast of Fools, where identities are confused, uncivil rule applauded and no harm is done. In Illyria therefore the fool is not so much a critic of his environment as a ringleader, a merry-companion, a Lord of Misrule. Being equally welcome above and below stairs.. makes Feste significant as a character. In Twelfth Night, Feste plays the role of a humble clown employed by Olivias father playing the licensed fool of their household. We learn this in Olivias statement stating that Feste is an allowed fool(I. v. 93) meaning he is licensed, privileged critic to speak the truth of the people around him. We also learn in a statement by Curio to the Duke that Feste is employed by Olivias father. Feste the jester a fool that the Lady Olivias father took much pleasure in(II. iv. 11). Feste is more of the comic truth of the comedy. Although he does not make any profound remarks, he seems to be the wisest person within all the characters in the comedy. Viola remarks this by saying This fellows wise enough to play the fool(III. i. 61). Since Feste is a licensed fool, his main role in Twelfth Night is to speak the truth. This is where the humor lies, his truthfulness. In one example he proves Olivia to be a true fool by asking her what she was mourning about. The point

Programming Paradigms Essay Example for Free

Programming Paradigms Essay This style of programming was brought as a result of lines of code being too long, thousands of lines of code were needed for one program. The procedural approach of programming was introduced that would break down these lines of code into block of around 10 lines of code, these blocks were used to carry out specific functions for the overall program. These functions are procedures hence the name of this style of programming was called Procedural Programming. In procedural programming a program would be built by writing these functions/procedures and calling upon them when you need them to perform a function in the program. An example of procedural programming is a scoreboard for a football tournament where the winning team would receive 3 points, and the losing team 0, if the teams draw 1 point is allocated to each team. The program for this would be broken down into blocks: The program is controlled by one control procedure, that calls each of the other procedures in the order that they’ll be executed, in this example the procedures called from the input, then to calculate and finally to display results. Procedural programming has many limitations; firstly, there is a lack of reusability, this is because by using procedural programming, thousands of lines of code are used which are for one specific purpose. If the program was to be used in the same organisation, amending the lines of code can be a lengthy procedure as there are many lines of code to sort through, also if some lines of code are edited, bugs can occur in other parts of the while program, therefore it would be best to create a completely new program. Another limitation is the fact that using procedural programming is not productive, as is it a lengthy process, and programmers who can code in the procedural style are very expensive, therefore employing them can be very expensive. Team working while using the procedural programming can be very difficult, even though large organisations require a group of programmers rather than one. Object orientated programming became more popular due to the fact that team working was not easy, it allowed teams to be split up so that they could each create objects and then bring them together to create one whole program. FORTRAN is a typical application that uses procedural programming; this was one of the first high-level languages and was created by IBM in 1954. FORTRAN is still used today for scientific, engineering and mathematical problems.

Armys Approach To Situational Leadership Management Essay

Armys Approach To Situational Leadership Management Essay The Armys approach to situational leadership is based on the fact that leaders must lead in all situations and ajust to environments that are always changing. In order to prepare leaders for these challenges, the Army uses the concept of situational leadership as a platform. It teaches leaders the impotance of situational leadership, team dynamics and peer leadership (Applied Team Leadership, 2009). The Army stresses that leadership is not about setting rigid, unbending expectations and dictating orders. Good leaders match a style of leadership that matches the current situation, and those that they lead. This paper examines the Armys appoaches situational leadership. It reviews the basic concept of situational leadership, looks at how the Army defines leadership and examines the different perspectives and theories the Army believes to be critical to success. The paper discusses leadership traits and behaviors, and how they are the building blocks for the Armys Leadership Requirement Model. It examines how the Army applies its leadership model using the elements of leadership, both transactional and transformational. And finally, it discusses adaptive leadership, its characteristics, and how the Army builds adaptive leaders. . Table of Contents Introductionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..1 The Basic Concept of Situational Leadership à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.2 The Army and Leadershipà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦3 The Army Relationship Requirement Modelà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦4 Transactional Leadershipà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..5 Transformational Leadershipà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦6 Which Style is Best?à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦6 Applied Adaptive Leadershipà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..7 Conclusionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦8 Leadership remains the most baffling of the artsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦as long as we do not know exactly what makes men get up out of a hole in the ground and go forward in the face of death at a word from another man, then leadership will remain one of the highest and most elusive of qualities. It will remain an art. James L Stokesbury The art of leadership the Stokesbury alludes to is a subject studied more seriously in military schools than in civilian institutions. Given the life-and-death nature of our business and the importance of the military to a nations survival, this should surprise no one. What is surprising, however, is that most professional military education schools rely almost exclusively on the civilian-orientated Hersey and Blanchard Situational Leadership model to help teach military leadership and management. (Waddell, 1994) The Army believes that leadership is a complex human behavior, and there is no one single way to view it. In order to be an effective leader, one must study more than one model or theory of leadership. This is why the military leader must make use of the studies and histories of military units and figures, and not repeat the mistakes of the past. (Yukl, 1986) While many scholars, sociologist, and historians have analyzed the methods of leadership, there remains no single way to create a great leader. Young Army leaders attending professional development programs need to understand the strengths and weaknesses of different styles and theories. Military leaders are different than leaders in other types of organizations because they are appointed and not emergent. (Yeakey, 2002,) To become truly effective leaders, the Army officer must be more than a one trick pony who can apply only one leadership model. Army leaders lead more intensively than most of their counterparts in civilian life do, in situations where the lack of effective leadership will have catastrophic results (Foundations of Leadership, 2008) The Army Leadership Requirement Model centers on what a leader is and what a leader must do. Because of the stress of combat, the military leader must build trust and confidence with subordinates. To do this, the Army has developed a standard set of attributes and core leader competencies designed to aid in development of leaders who can succeed in a wide variety of difficult situations. US Army Field Manual (FM) 22-100, Army Leadership, also added transactional and transformational leadership styles in the 1980s. Today, the manual has been updated and these two proven styles continue to assist Army leaders in shaping behavior, emotions, and the organizational climate. (Yeakey, 2002) Transformational leadership is at the core of what constitutes adaptive leadership, according to U.S. Army doctrine Field Manual (Bass, Jung, Avolio, Berson, 2003). This leadership approach allows the modern Army leader the ability to adapt to an ever changing environment. Adaptive leadership is an approach by the Army, designed to give the leader an edge in the Contemporary Operating Environment (COE). However being adaptive is more than reacting to a situation. Army leaders anticipate and employ their style of leadership based on that situation. They are able to assume risk, make well informed decisions, and adjust accordingly. The Basic Concept of Situation Leadership According to modern theories of situational leadership developed by P. Hersey, K.H. Blanchard, and D.E. Johnson in their siminal work, Management of Organizational Behavior: Leading Human Resources, there is no one best way to influence people. In Army terms, their theory holds that the leadership style you select and use will depend in the environment and the readiness or ability of the individual soldier (Applied Team Leadership, 2009). Situational leadership is based on an interplay among (1) the amount of guidance and direction (task behavior) a leader gives, (2) the amount of sociomotional support (relationship behavior) a leader provides, and (3) the performance readiness level that the followers exibit in performing a specific task, function or objective (Hersey et al., 2008) Task Behavior Is defined as the extent to which the leader engages in spelling out the duties and responsibilites of an individual or group (Hersey et al., 2008). Examples of task behavior may include developing a list of things to accomplish, establishment of priorities. It might even include following up and assessing the progress made by individuals or teams. Relationship Behavior Is defined as the extent to which the leader engages in two-way or multiway communication (Hersey et al., 2008). Relaionship behavior includes listening, teaching, or counseling. The more you adapt your behavior to the situation, the more effective your attempts to influence will be. No one style is effective in all situations. Each style is appropriate and effective depending on the situation (Hersey et al., 2008). Peoples level of readiness tends to be different, depending on their task. Readiness has nothing to do with values, life experience, or traits; it has everything to do about ones willingness and ability. Willingness is the combination of confidence, commitment, and motivation. Ability is the knowledge, experience, and demonstrated skill that the follower brings to the task and is based on an actual display of abilities. Leaders should not select a leadership style by assuming that the follower should know (Yeakey, 2002). The Army and Leadership An Army leader is anyone who by virtue of assumed role or assigned responsibility inspires and influences people to accomplish organizational goals. Army leaders motivate people both inside andoutside the chain of command to pursue actions, focus thinking, and shape decisions for the greater good of the organization. (FM 6-22, Army Leadership, 2006) For decades, scholars, business leaders, and organizational researchers have continually refined the definition of leadership-based on their findings and expereince, and the latest real-world models and situations. The variety of their theories about leadership stems from leaderships multidimesional nature (Foundations of Leadership, 2008). The Army is always looking for ways to improve itself. Weather developing new tactics for fighting the war on terrorism, or improving its ability to provide care for wounded warriors, improving the force is always at the forfront of the Army. This goal to improve can also be seen in Army leadership. Greater efficiency and effectivness in its leaders led the Army to reevaluate its application of leadership principles. The Army drew on several leadership theories from business and academia to develop its own leadership frame work and definition of of what leadership entails (Foundations of Leadership, 2008). By examining different perspectives and theories, Army leaders are better equiped to deal with the complex nature of leadership in the contemporary operating environment. The Army Leadership Requirement Model The Army devotes significant resources to studying and promoting in-depth discussionof many leadership theories. Its aim is to help develop leaders who can succeed in a wide variety of challenging situations (Foundations of Leadership, 2008). The requirement models basic componets center on what a leader is (attributes BE and KNOW) and what a leader does (competencies DO). An Army leaders character, presence, and intellect enable them to master the core competencies through didicated lifelong learning. The balanced application of the critical leadership requirement model empowers the leader to build high performing and cohesive organizations. It also creates positive organizational climates, allowing for individuals and team learning, and empathy for all. Three major factors determine character: values, empathy, and Warrior Ethos. Some charactoristics are present at the beginning of a leaders career, while others are developed over time. Physical presence determines how others others perceive you. The factors of physcial presence are bearing, phyical fitness, and resilience. Intellectual capacity helps to conceptualize solutions and aquire knowledge to do the job. A leaders conceptual abilities apply agility, judgment, innovation, interpersonal tact, and domain knowledge. Domain knowledge encompasses tactical and technical knowledge as well as cultural awareness. Leader competencies develop from baleanced combination on institutional schooling, self development, realistic training, and professional experience. Building competence follows a systematic and gradual approach, from mastering individual competencies, to applying them in concert and tailoring them to the situation at hand. Leading people by giving them a complex task helps develop the confidence and will take on progressively more difficult challenges. Competencies provide a clear and concise way of conveying expectations for Army leaders. Current and future leaders want to know what to do to succeed in their leadership responsibilities. The core leader competencies apply across all levels of the organization, across leader positions, and throughout careers. Competencies are demonstrated through behaviors that can be readily observed and assessed by a spectrum of leaders and followers: superiors, subordinates, peers and mentors. This makes for a good basis for leader development and focused multi-source assessment and feedback. Transactual Leadership Transactual leadership is based on a transaction or exchange of something of value the leader possess or controls that the follower wants in return for his/her services (Homrig, 2001). The transactual relationship between leader and follower follows an approach where there is either a reward or incentive for achievement; the leader uses punishment or corrective action as a response to unacceptable performance; or the leader actively monitors the progress of work, and uses corrective action to ensure the desired standard is met. While the transactual style of leadership may not be the most popular, or prefered method, it cannot be denied that it produces results. Young recruits who entry the Army live under the transactual style of leadership. These young men and women are placed in a environment designed to break undesirable habits, and build new ones. In order to motivate, and build cohesive teams out of individuals, Drill sergeants who have very limited time, follow the transactual style of leadership using rewards, or punishment to meet acceptable standards. Army leaders often times, because of their situation use the tranactional style of leadership. This is usually only for short periods of time where there is no time to react to other than a direct approach. Examples of these types of situations may include safety situations, or when a unit comes under direct fire from the enemy. Choosing to use transactual leadership involves more than the readiness level of subordinates. The style will change as the situation changes. The goal of the Army leadership today is to create bonds between soldiers with stregnth to motivate even when the leader is not present. To build the kind of lasting bonds that enhance unit cohesion, moral, and performance, Army leaders must look to a higher order of leadership: transformational leadership (Foundations of Leadership, 2008) Transformational Leadership With the introduction of transformational leadership theory into the literature, greater attention has now been paid to understanding how certain leaders are better equipped to elevate a followers motivation and performance to the high levels of accomplishment (Bass, 1985). Tranformational leadership is based on the assumption that people will follow a leader who inspires or motivates them. This method to motivate and inspire is often used to develop a compelling vision by selling it and focusing on developing relationships with followers as a teacher, mentor, and coach might. The transformatioanl leader thus spends a great deal of time building trust and demonstrates a high level of personal integrety to engage his/her followers. His or her ultimate goal is to transform followers while achieving results. In military engagements, leadership, moral, cohesion, and commitment have long been identified as critical ingredients to unit performance (Bass, 1998) Military units demonstrating a high level of esprit de corps and moral have frequently produced the best results (Shamir, Zakay, Breinen, Popper, 1998). Transformational leaders have developed a set of internal values. They have gained a high level of commitment that transends down to their followers. Transformational leaders have the ability to to operate in a manner that best fits the situation. The military professional must weigh the pros an cons of these leader/follower relionships to judge which is best when. This is by no means an easy task and usually results in a great deal of thought, for being a leader is work (Homrig, 2001). Which Style is Best? Each style has its advantages and its limitations. The Army teaches that when choosing an appropraite style, one must consider the amount of time available to accomplish the objective, your abilities and those of the subordinates, and the current situation. Bernard Bass, co-author of Adding to contingent-reward behavior: The augmenting effect of charismatic leadership says The best leadership is both transformational and transactional. Transformational leadership augments the effectiveness of transactional leadership; it does not replace transactional leadership (Waltman, Bass, Yammarino, 1990). People in general look to leaders for guidance and direction; however they want to be encouraged to to negotiate challenges. The successful leader will inspire and motivate groups or teams in the organization to create synergy among them to tackle that challenging situation or obstacle. Transformational leaders will ultimatly build long term pride, competence, and commitment within the organization that goes beyond what can be achieved by using transactual leadership. Transformational leadership is at the core of what constitutes adaptive leadership, according to U.S. Army doctrine Field Manual 22-100 (Bass et al., 2003). Applied Adaptive Leadership Dr. Leonard Wong, a twenty year Army veteran, and author of Developing Adaptive Leaders: The Crucible Experience of Operation Iraqi Freedom, cites leadership researcher Warren Bennis, who defines adaptive leadership: The critical quality of a leader that determines how a leader will fare in a crucible experience is adaptive capacity. Adaptive capacity allows leaders to respond quickly and intelligently to constant change. It is the ability to identify and sieze opportunities. It allows leaders to act and then evaluate results instead of attempting to collect and analyze all the data before acting (Wong, 2004) According to Wong, adaptive leaders need to be mentally flexable and agile. They must possess strong conceptual and technical skills. Adaptive leaders are strong under pressure, and can operate will little or no supervision. Flexible, adaptive leadership is important for leaders to adapt to different situations. Hersey Blanchard point out that more delegation and less monitoring is needed for subordinates who are confident and competent than ones who are not. Change is the only constant. Adaptive leaders know the strengths of self and subordinates, understand the mission, and can quickly diagnose the situation. They manage and adapt while leading and motivating the team. There are no leader institutions within the Army that guarantee leaders become adaptive. The charactoristics of adaptive leadership indicate that training and eduacation are the foundation. The ability to critically think, recognize situations, adapt, and act, requires time and effort. The Army believes that you can learn to be an adaptive leader. As leaders experience different challenging situations, they develop new skills needed to move on to new levels of achievment. According to Wong, adaptive Army leaders competently deal with three aspects of the contemporary operational environement: ambiguity, complexity, and change (Wong, 2004). Ambiguity Army leaders are taught the importance to completely understanding the senior officiers intent. Leaders deal with unpredictabiltiy on a day to day basis, and while the planning is critical to mission accomplisment, do not become consumed with the plan. Leaders need consider the overall intent, and build plan that work for the team. Complexity Adaptive leaders must learn to deal with complexity. Wong interviewed one yooung officer in Iraq, I cant tell you what Im doing tomorrow. I can tell you what Im suppose to be doing tomorrow. Things change so frequently, and you just expect that. You know that every day you live a day at a time. Things you plan change, based on intel reports, based on different changes in the mission. Change This is the only constant. The adaptive leader must anticipate and master transitions. Changing conditions can change the priorities of the mision, and provide new challenges. Leaders need to find a balance, adapt to the situation, and execute while motivating and inspriring the team. Conclusion James Stokes describes leadership as an art. The United States Army agrees, and therfore embrased the widely popular situational leadership as the foundation for its leadership training model. It shows Army leaders that theres no one best way to influence people, and that only through the study of different theories, styles and behaviors, will you master that art. The Army, through its leadership requirement model, has developed a framework that I believe is useful in assisting young leaders with their leadership. Adaptive leadership is critical for Army leaders as they operate on todays modern technically advanced battlefield. Because of the complexity of and ambiguity of the environement that they face, flexible leadership is required more than ever.